"What Exactly is Learning and Memory?" (see below)
What exactly is learning and memory?
Definitions:
Learning and Memory Compiled
by Liz Yates
Learning – a psychological process, primarily using
the sensory areas of the brain: parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes
*In the
brain:
When
learning occurs, specific neurons connect and form a “junction box” at the
synapse. When we say cells “connect” with other cells, we really mean that they
are in such close proximity that the synapse is easily used over and over
again; the cells have changes their receptivity to messages based on previous
stimulation and have “learned.” In short, learning happens through the
alteration of synaptic efficacy. A specific type of contact occurs between an
axon and a dendrite. A process known as synaptic adhesion helps bind the two
together with protein strands. These strands keep them in close proximity.
Several
conditions show that learning has taken place in the brain.
- 1. The connections are either strengthened,
weakened, or reprogrammed to new neurons.
- 2. Synapses are eliminated through pruning
what you don’t use.
- 3. New connections grow through a process
called synaptogenesis.
- 4. The brain retains “extra” synapses from
trauma or prenatal insult, such as poor nutrition or drugs in utero.
- 5. In cases of lesions or insults, areas of
the brain may reorganize to the opposite hemisphere. In nontraumatic cases of
experience-driven learning, such as playing a musical instrument of over time,
the brain may remap itself, using up abnormal areas of neural real estate.
(Jensen, p. 18-19)
External
and internal factors critically influence learning:
-
Engagement (attending, suppressing external stimuli),
repetition (priming, reviewing, revising),
-
Quantity of information input (capacity, flow, chunk
size), coherence (relevance, prior knowledge), timing (time of day, intervals
of learning), error correction (feedback), and emotional states (safety, state
of dependence). (Jensen, p. 34-35)
When
we say students have learned something, we might say that they can
-
Identify or predict the relevant associations among
variables in the learning situation
-
Predict and express accurately the appropriate concepts
or actions
-
Store, retrieve, and apply that prediction in context
next time (Jensen, p. 18)
Students go
through developmental stages of learning before they fully understand
the concept.
-
Stage 1: Exposure – extensive teacher support and
direction are given to expose a new concept to the learner. (see 5x table)
-
Stage 2: Grasping the knowledge – practice is needed as
the student begins to understand the concept (practice 5x tables with flash
cards, computer games, drill work)
-
Stage 3: Independence – the student is able to do the
task when direct instruction and
reinforcements have been withdrawn (can recite the 5x tables by himself)
-
Stage 4: Application – the student owns the knowledge,
has internalized it, and can apply it to new situations (uses 5x tables to
solve word problems) (Lerner, p.157-159)*
[I liken it to this pattern: “me,
we, you, go for it”! Me is strong
teacher support, we is practice as a
group, you is independent work, go for it is application. (Yates)]
Memory – a consequence, primarily using the
limbic region and frontal lobe for storage and retrieval of information
Short term (or
working) memory: an item lasts 5-30 seconds before either disappearing or being
reactivated. Working memory has the capacity of 3-7 items at a time, depending
on age of learner, and other factors.
Long term
memory: the requirements for items to be stored in long term memory is
exposure, learning with short sessions and rest intervals, sleep for recycling
the learning, consolidation (the process of turning electrical and chemical
input into memory), and reactivating the memory.
*The
only way we know that students have learned something is if they demonstrate
recall of it. In general, we [teachers] have only three “chances” to help
student in learning: (1) the original encoding, (2) the maintenance of that
memory, and (3) the retrieval of the learning. Each stage gives us
opportunities to influence the learning. Memories are malleable. Children today
probably learn a great deal more than they demonstrate, and the ways we ask for
recall are part of the problems of “forgetful students.” (Jensen, p. 125)
Current
neuroscience describes memories as “dynamic” and not fixed. Among the many
factors found to be important are:
-
background context
-
date of encoding
-
emotions
-
hormones
-
neurogenesis
-
specific signaling stimuli (Nadel & Land, 2000,
December, “Memory Traces Revisited”, Nature
Reviews Neuroscience, 1 (3), 209-212)
Using what we now know, we can define
memory as the creation of a persistent change in the brain by transient
stimulus. (Jensen, p. 126)
There
are 2 broad categories of memory, each using multiple memory pathways: (1) Explicit
(declarative) includes both short term (5-20 seconds) and working memory
(3-4 items). Under its umbrella are Semantic (words, symbols) and Episodic
(location, events) memory. (2) Implicit (nondeclarative) includes
Procedural skills and habits (hands-on activities), Priming (perceptual,
nonassociative, clues given ahead of the learning), and Conditioning or
automated learning. Under the Conditioning umbrella, are three types of memory:
Simple cognitive reflexes (flash cards, repetitions), Emotional intensity
(trauma, pleasure), and Sensory reflexive (triggered responses).
Why
memory fails: transience (erodes over time), absent-mindedness (not really
paying attention), blocking (it’s on the tip of my tongue), misattribution
(we’re confused by similar memories, false recognition, getting the “gist” but
incorrectly), suggestibility (contamination by planted thoughts, accidental or
not), bias (existing prejudices influence our memory), persistence (negative
memory becomes pervasive). (Daniel Schacter, 2001, “The Seven Sins of Memory”,
New York, Houghton Mifflin.) (Jensen, p. 125-140)*
* indicate quotes or information from Eric Jensen's research, or another author, as cited.
Preg. Women: fetal development is
highly vulnerable to thalidomide, smoke, alcohol. There is a connection to
intelligence and behavior to the contamination in the womb. 85,000 synthetic
compounds can derail neurological development. The highest risk for developing
babies is an undernourished mother.
Children B-2yrs: children play close to
the ground where there are contaminants such as toxins that find their way in
soil, dust, water, air, and food. Agricultural pesticides, containing a nerve
agent (organophosphates), leach their way into soils, foods, water, and air.
The results of exposure to these are –brain abnormalities, poor coordination,
memory deficits, and hyperactivity. Flame retardants did more damage than good,
b/c it interfered with the thyroid hormone in the baby, resulting in impaired
coordination, mental retardation, learning disabilities, speech and memory
problems.
So what are the
positives, how can we feed the brain?
Water for blood flow, keeping
hydrated, drinking 8 oz. per 25 lbs of body weight. If not enough water, then
not good blood flow, which also carries iron and oxygen.
Lack of iron absorption, anemia, can
reduce cognitive function, contribute to maladaptive behavior, and poor motor
development. Foods that inhibit iron absorption are cereals, tannins in tea,
bran and soybeans. Consider changing up your breakfast foods with eggs, green
peppers, milk, or juice.
Dehydration can lead to yawning, b/c not enough
oxygen is being transported through the blood.
Nutritionally one must consider glucose,
blood sugar from carbohydrates (starches), as they boost brain activity,
working memory, attention, and motor function. Consider a fruit break for kids,
mid morning or afternoon!
Proteins are critical to brain
function, as they enhance math competency, attention span, alertness.
Sleep
should
consist of 8-9 hours per night which allows for 5 REM cycles. During sleep the
brain is sorting and organizing data from the day. Sleep deprivation can impair
memory, energy, and emotional well-being. Teens who like to stay up late, then
have to rise early for high school, lose the last 2 REM cycles and impair their
learning. This has become such a concern that scientists have named this as a
legitimate disorder: Delayed Sleep Phase Disorder.
Eric
Jensen (Teaching with the Brain in Mind) also mentions the need for love, movement and music for the
developing brain. Children exposed to neglect, stress, abuse, or violence
may not be able to regulate their emotions. Instead of children watching TV or
playing video games, encourage them to go on a swing, play using their large
muscles, balance, skip, explore, etc. “This early motor stimulation leads to
better attention, listening skills, reading scores, and writing skills”
(Palmer, 2003). Music, rhyming and language exposure (dialoging, reading,
singing) develops the auditory discrimination essential for learning.
Resources:
Hopkins, K. (2003) "The Science of Learning Disabilities", Lecture at NILD Conference, Norfolk. Jensen, Eric; Teaching with the Brain in Mind, 2nd edition, 2005 Palmer, L. (2003, July 25). "Smart Start program: Evidence from two schools: Vestibular stimulation improves academic perfromance". Lecture at Learning Brain EXPO, Chicago.
